[1] See my Yesterday"s Soldiers: European Military Professionalism in South America, 1890-1940 (Lincoln, 1983); and The Time of the Generals: Latin American Professional Militarism in World Perspective (Lincoln, 1992) for examples of the significance of military literature in the analysis of sociopolitical behaviour of armies.
[2] In addition to my works just cited, see the following recent efforts: "The Roles of Civilian Experts in the International Community and Military Professionalism in the New World Order", in Ernest Gilman and Detlef E. Herold, eds., Democratic and Civil Control over Military Forces: Case Studies and Perspectives, NATO Defense College Monograph Series 3 (Rome, 1995); and "The South American Military and (Re)democratization: Professional Thought and Self-perception", Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs (Summer 1995):1-56.
[3] General Francisco Paula de Cidade, "Da Miss"o Militar Franceza aos Nossos Dias", in Revista Militar Brasileira (July-December 1954):131-186. I have omitted volume and issue numbers from military journal citations owing to inconsistencies that make such information more confusing than its omission.
[4] See Alfred de Vigny, Servitude et grandeurs militaires (Paris,1835); Carl von Clausewitz, Vom Krieg (various editions); Hubert Lyautey, "Du rôle social de l"officier", Revue des Deux Mondes (15 March 1891); and Colmar von der Goltz, Das Volk in Waffen (Berlin, 1883). See also Charles de Gaulle, Le fil de l"épée (Paris, 1927); and Hans von Seeckt, Gedanken eines Soldaten (Berlin 1930). All these works are available in translation; all are in need of re-edition.
[5] See Lieutenant Colonel Chaplain Roberto A. Wilkinson, "Psicología del mando", Revista de Informaciones (September-October 1953). On the influence of Belloc in Argentina, see Hilaire Belloc, The Crisis of Our Civilization (New York, 1937) La crisis de nuestra civilización (Buenos Aires, 1950). See also The Time of the Generals, pp.6, 49, and 73. Post-1950 Argentine army literature contains repeated oblique and overt references to Belloc"s writings. See infra, note 23.
[6]See Colonel Juan Mendoza Rodríguez, "La escuela militar en la obra de la educacion nacional", Revista Militar del Perú (April 1948):259-267.
[7] See Lieutenant Colonel Manuel A. Estol, "La ética militar frente al materialismo", Revista Militar (Argentina) (March-April 1953):155-161. Spanish officers in the post-Franco years found Don Quixote a symbol for their own identity crisis. See my "The South American Military and (Re)democratization", pp.12-13.
[8]As stated in Colonel Humberto Martins de Melo, "Sugest"o para a UtilizaI"o da Lei do ServiIo Militar como Instrumento Acelerador da Cultura do Povo Brasileiro", Revista Militar Brasileira (January-June 1946):5-80.
[9] See Major Benjamín Videla, "La intervenció del ejército en obras de beneficio público", Memorial del Ejército de Chile (September-October 1947):64-80.
[10] See General Manuel Morla Concha, "La función social del ejército", Revista Militar del Perú (April 1952):vii-xxv. It originally appeared in the October 1933 issue of the Revista (pp.843-872), entitled "La función social del ejército en la organización de la nacionalidad"
[11] See Captain Fernando Montaldo Bustos, "Ningún cuerpo armado puede deliberar", Memorial del Ejército de Chile (July-August 1953):79-84.
[12] See General Benjamín Rattenbach, Sociología militar (Buenos Aires, various editions); General Edgardo Mercado Jarrín, "El ejército de hoy y su proyección en nuestra sociedad en período de transición", Revista Militar del Perú (November-December 1964):1-20; General Nelson Werneck Sodré, Memórias de um Soldado (Rio de Janeiro, 1967); and Captain Tobías Barros Ortiz, Vigilia de armas (Santiago, 1920).
[13] This is quite clear given the documentary evidence presented in The Time of the Generals.
[14] All discussed in the context of this paper"s argument in Lorenz Böninger, Die Ritterwürde in Mittelitalien zwischen Mittelalter und Früher Neuzeit (Berlin, 1995).
[15] For example, at the International Research Seminar on Euro-Atlantic Security of the NATO Defence College, December 1994, Rome. The theme of the 1994 Seminar, the third to be held since the end of the Cold War, was "Democratic and Civil Control over Military Forces". It involved scholars, policy makers, and military professionals from NATO countries, former member states of the Warsaw Pact, and the USSR, and was co-sponsored by the Institute of International Studies, Sofia.
[16] Attribution is certain if not exactly documented. I first heard Bohr"s statement in early 1986 at a dinner meeting in London, when historian Simon Collier used it while venturing some opinions on democracy in South America. Other colleagues have corroborated the allusion, leading me to think that Bohr might have made it in a university lecture in England. Victor Bulmer-Thomas allowed as how he had heard this following a talk of my own at the Institute of Latin American Studies, University of London, in the spring of 1994. Anne C. Peterson, Deputy Director of the National Science Foundation, so cited the Danish physicist in her address to the national Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges, Chicago, November 1994. She kindly supplied me with a partially satisfactory ascription: Speechwriters" Newsletter, October 7, 1994.
[17] See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York, 1992); Samuel P. Huntingon, The Third Wave: Democratization in the late Twentieth Century (Norman, 1991); and Immanuel Wallerstein, Geopolitics and Geoculture: Essays on the Changing World System (Cambridge, UK, 1991).
[18] Recent research with Latin American, South Asian, Western European, and North American sources, carried out in 1993-1994 with support from the Fulbright Faculty Research Abroad Program, Center for International Education, US Department of Education, in Chile, Paraguay, Germany, and England supports this assertion. For background see The Time of the Generals, passim.
[19] These are preliminary conclusions based on recent textual analyses of military literature published since the mid 1980s in the same journals utilized for documentation of The Time of the Generals.
[20] See Argentine, Brazilian, and Chilean materials cited in The Time of the Generals; and Yesterday"s Soldiers, passim.
[21] In a September 1993 conversation the commander-in-chief of the Chilean Army iterated his discomfort with US hemispheric defence policy by likening it to that of Rome"s reliance on mercenaries and barbarians (i.e. non-Romans) to secure the Empire. "And you know what happened to the Roman Empire when relations between her defenders and her government broke down", was his point. Having supported military buildups in the region during the Cold War, the US is perceived by more than a few South Americans as no longer finding it convenient to consort with former friends.
[22] On this, see Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century (London, 1994).
[23] Reference is to Belloc"s fervently Catholic lectures delivered at Fordham University in 1937, later published and widely read in Argentina. See note 5, supra. Let the following examples from Revista Militar suffice: General Manuel Rodríguez, "La nación, la defensa nacional, y las fuerzas armadas" (May-August 1987):24-29; General Tomás Sánchez Bustamante, "Hispanidad y fuerzas armadas (volume same):39-50; General Ramón Genaro Díaz Bessone"s "Esperanza y guerra revolucionaria" (September-December 1987):6-22; and "Guerra revolucionaria en la Argentina, 1959-1978" (January-March 1988):7-20; General Luciano Benjamín Menéndez, "El plan de guerra de la subversión" (same):21-24; Colonel Guillermo Daract, "Precisiones sobre la guerra que vivimos" (same):51-61; Colonels Carlos A. Maldonado and Néstor Romero, "Un punto de vista sobre la actualidad de nuestro ejército" (same):62-69; General Osiris Guillermo Villegas, "La disuasión y la guerra" (n.m. 1991):3-5; Daract, "Resultado de una política militar (same):23-25; Lieutenant Colonel Alberto M. Garsino, "Fuerzas armadas nacionales: Un planteo existencial" (same) 35-37; Díaz Bessone, "Análisis de la situación mundial: Perspectiva hacia el futuro" (same):38-47; Major (ret.) Luis Muzlera, "La desvalorización de la profesión militar" (same):48-49; Villegas, "Distensión y guerra" (n.m. 1992):3-5; General Raúl Julio Gómez Sabarini, "El proceso de formación y capacitación de oficiales en el ejército de los EE. UU. de América" (same):36-46; and Dr Néstor Arico, "Las ff. aa. garantes de la continuidad de la nación" (same):47-56.
[24] As examples, special issues of the Revista dating from 1984 devoted to the FEB (October-December 1984, January-March 1985, April-June 1985, July-September 1985); Colonel Robert Miscow Filho, "Breve Excurso Sobre a Profissão Militar" (January-March 1986):74-85; Major (ret.) José Fonseca da Silva, "Formação Militar"(July-September 1986):65-66; General Adriano Aulio Pinheiro da Silva, "O Oficial Temporário: Realidade e Necessidade" (July-September 1987):7-18; Colonel (ret.) Carlos Alberto Benites de Carvalho Lima, "Aspectos Gerais dos Problemas de Chefia e LideranIa" (October-December 1987:13-27; General (ret.) Aurélio de Lyra Tavares, et al, special issue on the centennial of the Colégio Militar (preparatory school) (January-March 1989); Lieutenant Colonel Antônio Gonçalves Meira, "Tiradentes e Floriano: A Idéia e a Ordem Republicanas" (April-June 1989):22-24; Colonel Ney Salles, "Perfil de Chefia do Militar Brasileiro" (July-September 1989):46-53; and a special issue on the centennial of the Republic (October-December 1989).
[25] See "The South American Military and (Re)democratization", passim.
[26] In addition to sources cited in The Time of The Generals and "The South American Military and (Re)democratization," see, from the Memorial, Colonel Carlos Molina Johnson, "Las fuerzas armadas y su papel en la sociedad" (January-April 1992):2-7; Lieutenant Colonel Eduardo Aldunate Herman, "Algunas ideas sobre la violencia en América Latina" (same):15-26; and essays and reproduced addresses in special issues of Memorial. devoted to military-civilian relations (May-December 1991, September-December 1992, and January-April 1993).
[27] From Bulgarian Military Review see Todor Chourov, "Partnership for Peace: Step Towards Concrete Preparation" (Spring 1994):6-8; President Zhelyu Zhelev, "Seeking a Place in the New Collective Security System" (same):3-5; Danton Nedev and Nikola Yakov, "Bulgaria"s Choice" (same):9-13; Vasil Dimitrov, "NATO and Russia in Bulgaria"s Security Policy" (same):14-26; Colonel Dimiter Mitkov, "The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the National Security of the Republic of Bulgaria" (same):27-36; General Tsvetan Totomirov, "Land Forces Reform: History, Present, and Prospects" (same):38-46; and Colonel Emil Velinov, "The Service Training System in the Bulgarian Army (Functional Characterization and Areas of Reform)" (Summer 1994):35-42.
[28] The following essays in Canadian Defence Quarterly are indicative: Kenneth J. Calder and Francis Furtado, "Canadian Defence Policy in the 1990s: International and Domestic Determinants" (Special Issue 2, 1991):9-13; Colonel James H. Allen, "Canadian Defence Policy After the Gulf" (Autumn 1991):21-23; Colonel J.D. Harris, "Peacekeeping Futures" (same):25-31; General J.C. Gervais, "Land forces in Transition: Challenges and Opportunities" (Winter 1991):7-12; General Richard Evraire, "Designing NATO"s New Military Force Structure" (Special Issue 1, February 1992):11-14; General J.K. Dangerfield, "A New Military Strategy for NATO" (same):15-20; Colonel David T. Lightburn, "Canada and NATO: The Other Transatlantic Partner" (Spring 1992):33-37; General A.J.G.D. de Chastelain, "Wing-Walking Revisited: Canadian Defence Policy After the Cold War" (Summer 1992):7-13; Colonel J.S. Bremmer and Lieutenant Colonel J.M. Snell, "The Changing Face of Peacekeeping" (Special Issue 2, 1992):12-27; Lieutenant Colonel William Johnston, "The Stationed Task force: Requiem for a Commitment on a Policy Process" (Winter 1992):6-12; General G.C.E. Theriault, "Reflections on Canadian Defence Policy and its Underlying Structural Problems" (Summer 1993):3-10; Colonel David Harries, "Challenges in Military Future" (December 1993):17-22; and General W. Donald McNamara, "Canada"s Domestic Strategic Interests" (Summer 1994):13-16.
[29] Ascription appears most recently in Colonel (ret.) Jean Louis Dufour, "Le Livre Blanc et les conflits regionaux", Défense Nationale (July 1994):41-48. In the Spring of 1937 Saint Exupéry was in Spain as a correspondent for Paris-Soir.
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